Trinity and Beyond

In DLC, we have been watching the movie Trinity and Beyond in an effort to learn more about the United State’s past in nuclear energy. On July 16, 1945 at 5:29 a.m. the first atomic bomb exploded in an area in New Mexico as a test. Before that in May of 1945 in New Mexico, 100 tons of TNT were exploded to simulate an atomic bomb. All of these tests took place because of Albert Einstein’s persuasion. He wrote a famous letter to FDR saying that uranium was the future, and we needed to research more about uranium. On December 2, 1942, Enrico Fermi started the first chain reaction with uranium. Los Alamos is a secret laboratory where the bombs were built. Dr. Edward Teller is the father of the hydrogen bomb. The code name for the uranium bomb is “Little Boy.” There was also a plutonium bomb with the code name “Fat Man.” The core of this bomb was plutonium. The Little Boy turned the desert sand of Japan into radioactive green glass. In Hiroshima, 70,000 people were killed by the explosion. In Nagasaki, 40,000 people were killed, and 40,000 people were injured by the bomb. Eleven months after bombing Japan, the United States conducted nuclear testing in the Pacific Ocean at Bikini Atoll. They wanted to see the effects nuclear weapons had on living things and boats. Bikini Baker was an underwater bomb that had to be detonated. In the late 1940’s Russia claimed that they had nuclear weapons. This happened faster than America predicted because an American scientist who worked on the bomb gave some top secret information to Russia. In 1951 more nuclear testing continued Nevada, New Mexico, and the Pacific Ocean. The Hydrogen Bomb was created when liquid hydrogen isotopes create a nuclear thermic reaction. Ivy Mike was the first full scale hydrogen bomb. In 1953, the United States test launching a nuclear bomb from a cannon in Nevada. Castle Bravo was a huge explosion on an island in the Pacific. It created Bravo Crater. Soon, the United States realized the health effects that nuclear weapons had. Strontium- 90 is like calcium except it causes leukemia. Operation Plumbomb consisted of 24 tests in Nevada to study the effects from nuclear explosions. The 21st test is known as the rainier event because a bomb was detonated underground. In Operation Hardtack, the Cactus event was when a bomb produced a large crater. In 1980 (after the nuclear testing was over), all the fish and radioactive debris was placed in the crater. Redstone was a bomb that was detonated in space. It caused a severe disturbance to the Earth’s magnetic field. President John F. Kennedy put an end to all the for safety reasons. I find it shocking that from 1945-1962, the United States of America conducted 331 atmospheric nuclear tests. In conclusion, Trinity and Beyond helped me learn more about the history behind nuclear weapons.

PowderAde Lab

Ms. Leland assigned us a virtual lab that experimented with different concentrations of “PowderAde.” PowderAde is a bit like Kool Aid. To create a PowderAde, a red powder containing sugar and other flavors acts as a solute, and distilled water is the solvent. 

If the drink is lighter in color, it is less concentrated. If the drink is darker in color, it is more concentrated. Therefore, Diego’s drink is less concentrated than Mia’s drink.

The reason that the drinks appear red is because they absorb green light. When the eye sees it, the drink appears red. Diego’s drink absorbs 0.36 amount of green light. 

By finding out the amount of water and PowderAde mix needed to create Diego’s drink, the concentration in grams/liter can be determined. I added 250 mL of distilled water to a 600 mL beaker, and I added 15 grams of PowderAde mix. I added to PowderAde mix 0.5 grams at a time.

This is the formula used to determine the concentration of Diego’s drink. The amount of PowderAde added and the amount of water added is based on the mixture I created before. 

Mia’s drink absorbs about 0.48 amount of green light. This essential in finding the concentration of Mia’s drink.

To find out the concentration of Mia’s drink in grams/liters, I had to replicate her drink. I added 250 mL of distilled water to a 600 mL beaker, and I added 20 grams of PowderAde mix. I added to PowderAde mix 0.5 grams at a time.

I used this formula to determine the concentration of Mia’s drink in grams/liter.

If Diego used 500 mL of water to make his drink, he would need to add 30 grams of PowderAde mix.  

To test that this formula works, I added 500 mL of water to a 600 mL beaker, and I added 30 grams of PowderAde mix. It worked because the amount of green light absorbed, 0.36, in Diego’s original drink matches the amount of green light absorbed in this drink.

Because we found out that the concentration of Mia’s drink is 80 g/L, this equation shows that Mia should add 28 grams of PowderAde mix to 350 mL of water to create her drink.

To test that this formula works, I added 350 mL of water to a 600 mL beaker, and I added 28 grams of PowderAde mix. It worked because the amount of green light absorbed, 0.48, in Mia’s original drink matches the amount of green light absorbed in this drink.

Since each packet of PowderAde contains 30 grams of mix, Diego can create 500 mL of PowderAde using an entire packet. This is because the concentration of his drink is 60 g/L.

To test this formula, I added 30 grams (an entire packet) of PowderAde mix to 500 mL of water. This resulted in a PowderAde drink with the same concentration as Diego’s drink.

Mia can create 375 mL of PowderAde with an entire packet. This was based on the fact that her desired concentration is 80 g/L.

When a whole packet of PowderAde mix (30 grams) is added to 375 mL of water, it results in PowderAde with the same concentration as Mia’s drink.

In 500 mL of Diego’s drink he is consuming 14 grams of sugar. This is based on the fact that PowderAde mix is 45% sugar.

In 350 mL of Mia’s drink, she will be consuming about 13 grams of sugar.

If Diego consumes 500 mL of his drink, he will be drinking more sugar than Mia will if she drinks 350 mL of her drink. However, Mia’s drink has a higher concentration of sugar than Diego’s. The reason why Mia’s drink has a higher concentration of sugar, but 500 mL of Diego’s drink has more sugar than 350 mL of Mia’s drink is because Diego’s drink has more volume. The amount of sugar relates to the volume of the drink and the concentration of the PowderAde because the concentration of PowderAde determines how much sugar will be in the drink based on the volume.

Solutions are created when a solute and a solvent are combined. In this lab, PowderAde mix was the solute, and distilled water was the solvent. When a solution is concentrated, it means that there is more solute and less solvent. There are a few variables that affect the concentration of solutions. One example is the amount of solvent because a mixture with more solvent will be less concentrated than a mixture with less solvent. The same goes for the amount of solute. A mixture with more solute is more concentrated than a mixture with less solute. In conclusion, virtually experimenting with different concentrations of PowderAde helped me understand the effect that concentration has on a solution.

Sodium Silicate Polymer Lab

Sodium Silicate Polymer Lab

Today we will be combining sodium silicate (Na2Si3O7) with ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH) to create a polymer.

Hypothesis: This polymer will be stronger than the polymer we made last Friday because the sodium hydroxide is a stronger base, so this will make the polymer stronger. There will be many other differences because this polymer is not going to bond through cross-linking.

Procedures: To create a polymer with ethyl alcohol and sodium silicate, start out by measuring 12 mL of sodium silicate solution and pour it into a beaker. Try to keep it away from your skin. The measure 3 mL of ethyl alcohol in another small beaker. Slowly pour the alcohol into the sodium silicate. Use your stirring rod to stir the mixture together until it forms a solid. Place the polymer in your hand, and press the solid together. Try to make it into a spherical ball that doesn’t crumble. If you need to moisten the ball, add a little bit of water to it. Try to bounce the ball.

Data and Analysis:

This is me pouring the sodium silicate in the ethyl alcohol. The sodium silicate was a viscous liquid. We had to use the stirring rod to get all of it out of the graduated cylinder.

This is a diagram I drew of the polymer being transformed into a solid with a stir in a matter of seconds.

Shelby, with her epic snowman nails, is mixing the sodium silicate and the alcohol. It turned into a solid quickly.

After many tries, we finally got into a solid sphere. At first we got the mixture into a little pebble sized ball, but using a paper towel helped to make it into a larger ball. When the polymer crumbled in my hand, it felt grainy. The little brown specks in the larger ball is little pieces of paper towel that got stuck to it. For the bounce test, this ball bounced very high. It was actually bouncier than I had expected it to be!

Questions:
1. What characteristics are similar between your two types of polymers you have made? Differences?
The color between the two were the same because they were both white. Pretty much everything else was different. The texture of the slime polymer was sticky and gooey. The texture of this polymer was hard. The polymer on Friday was on the verge of being a liquid, but this polymer was a firm solid. The polymer today crumbled in your hands, but the other one was easy to mold.

2. Most commercial polymers are carbon based. What similar properties do carbon and silicon share that may contribute to their abilities to polymerize?
Carbon and silicon are in the same family in the periodic table. Carbon is directly above silicon. They both have the same amount of valence electrons. That means that they bond with other atoms in the same way. They both make four chemical bonds.

3. Plastics are made of organic (carbon based) polymers. What similarities does the silicone polymer share with the plastics?
The silicone polymer and the carbon polymer were both solids.

4. How do you know that a chemical reaction had taken place when the two liquids were mixed?
The texture changed rapidly. All the liquid was put into the solid, so virtually all the alcohol held it together.

5. How could you find out what liquid was pressed out of the mass of crumbled solid as you formed the ball?
When you pressed the ball, it crumbled like feta cheese. The alcohol oozed out, and it irritated my hand a little, so I knew that it was alcohol.

6. Compare your ball with those of the other members of the class. How many properties can you compare? List and compare them.
Our ball was not as big as the others in our class. I noticed that the bigger balls bounced more than the smaller balls.

Conclusion: This lab deepened my understanding of polymers. My hypothesis was accepted because this polymer was stronger than the other polymer. This is because the sodium hydroxide provided a stronger base for the polymer to form. I learned that not all polymers have to be made by cross-linking. The reason that carbon and silicon form somewhat similar polymers is because they have very similar properties. Silicon and carbon can branch out to create long chains. When the alcohol and silicate were combined, the sodium silicate linked to form long chains. This polymer was very bouncy. It was very hard to form this polymer into a ball, though. I would love to make more polymers with different ingredients. I want to compare this to a real bouncy ball, and see the process that it is made in. In conclusion, I learned a lot about polymers in this lab, and I had fun in the process.

Hoax Demo/Glue and Borax Polymer Lab

Today Ms. Leland played a joke on us. She showed us a video that convinced us that it was possible to change the polarity of water and turn it into little marbles. The video had many steps that supposedly turned water into solid balls. First, make sodium acetate by mixing baking soda and vinegar. Then, put that mixture in the freezer for ten minutes. Take it out of the freezer and add the mixture to calcium bicarbonate. Then, add ½ cup of iodized salt. Boil for seven minutes, and then, let it sit for fifteen minutes. If you followed these instructions you would supposedly end up with solid water marbles. However, this is not what happens. If you follow these instructions you will end up with a mess in your kitchen and no solid water marbles.

Ms. Leland used Super Absorbent Polymers to make “solid water.” They are a plastic that starts out tiny, but when they are exposed to water they expand and turn into balls. The balls feel very rubbery, but they are a solid, so it is not very easy to break apart. They also have a little bounce in them. The reason they look clear in the water, and you cannot notice them is because they refract light the same way that water does, so they look the same.

The polymers are tiny to begin with but...

… if they come in contact with water, the polymers turn into balls.

After the demonstration performed by Ms. Leland, we created our own polymers.

Hypothesis: Borax and Elmer’s glue solution mixed together will create a putty mixture because the chemical reaction will result in Borax coming in between the Elmer’s glue structure and bonding it together. Borax will be the cross-linking agent.

Procedures: Add one heaping teaspoon of Borax to 100 mL of water. Stir the solution together. In a separate beaker add 5 mL of water to 25 mL of Elmer’s glue. Add 40 mL of the Borax solution to the Elmer’s glue solution. Stir rapidly as the new solution changes in texture and form. Empty the extra Borax solution in the sink.

Data and Analysis:

 

This is the glue solution before the Borax was added. It was very runny and obviously a liquid.

This is the Elmer’s glue solution while being vigorously stirred. Because I was stirring so hard bubbles began to form. It was beginning to become a solid, but it was not there yet. 

This is a diagram of the Elmer’s glue being stirred with the Borax solution.

This is the Elmer’s glue after it was stirred. It was a solid. It was still wet, so the blob was very slimy. The mixture felt very gelatinous. 

When the slime is stretched slowly, it does not rip. It stretches very far, though. When the slime is stretched rapidly it rips like a piece of paper would. 

The slime could easily be molded into any shape when it was wet. When it was dry it could still be molded, but it was not as easy.

Questions:
1. How is slime visco-elastic?
Slime is visco-elastic because it does not rip easily when it is stretched.

2. What are the physical properties that change as a result of the addition of sodium borate to the Elmer’s glue?
The sodium borate transformed a liquid glue solution to somewhat of a solid.

3. What would be the effect of adding more sodium borate to your cup (your thoughts only)?
Adding more sodium borate would make the slime less like jelly and more like a hard substance. This is because the glue is the liquid part of the slime and the borax is the solid part. If there is a higher amount of solid, then the slime will feel more like a solid.

4. After making observations on the dried glue, how does water affect the elasticity of a polymer? What is elasticity?
Elasticity is the amount an object can be stretched without breaking. Water increases the elasticity because it makes it easier to stretch and harder to break.

5. Find and circle the repeating unit in the polymer below.

6. What is the structural formula of the poly(vinyl alcohol) monomer circled above?

7. In the picture below, circle the borax cross-linking agent.
Conclusion: I had such a great time conducting this experiment. It was fun to play with the slime afterward! :) My hypothesis was accepted because the Borax was essential in keeping the slime a solid. It bound the molecules of the glue together, so that it became a solid. I learned that cross-linking agents keep polymers bound together as solids. I would have never expected Borax to turn a liquid glue into a solid! Water also has effects on polymers. Water makes the polymers have more elasticity. If I were to try this experiment again, I would use a different cross-linking agent. It would be interesting to compare the results if there are different cross-linking agents. In conclusion, this lab was extremely enjoyable and educational because I learned about cross-linking agents in polymers and had fun in the process!

Chemical Reactions and Heat Lab

Chemical Reactions and Heat

Problem: What effect does temperature have on the speed of a chemical reaction?

Hypothesis: If the temperature of the water is warmer, the Alka-Seltzer will dissolve faster because the heat of the water will act as a catalyst, and catalysts speed up chemical reactions.

Procedures/Materials: In this experiment Alka-Seltzer was dissolved in water at different temperatures, and then, the time it took for the Alka-Seltzer tablet to completely dissolve was recorded. We started by filling a 600 mL beaker with 266 mL of water. The hot plate was turned on, and the water in the beaker was heated to 50ºC. The temperature of the water was monitored with a temperature probe. When the water reached 50ºC, 1 Alka-Seltzer tablet was dropped into the water. The time it took for the tablet to dissolve was recorded with a stopwatch. Then, the contents of the beaker were emptied, and it was filled with 266 mL of room-temperature water. A thermometer was placed inside to monitor the temperature. Then, an Alka-Seltzer tablet was placed in the water, and the time it took to fully dissolve was recorded. The room-temperature water was emptied, and the beaker was filled with 133 mL of water and 3 ice cubes. The ice water was stirred for about a minute to make sure that the temperature evened out. The thermometer was placed in the beaker to record the temperature. One Alka-Seltzer tablet was dropped in the water, and the time it took to dissolve was written down. The water in the beaker was emptied. For our final test, we were allowed to manipulate any variables we wanted. We had already done tests to manipulate the temperature, so this time we manipulated the amount of water in the beaker. We added 500 mL of room temperature water to the 600 mL beaker. Then, a tablet of Alka-Seltzer was dropped in the water, and the time for it to dissolve was recorded.

Data and Analysis:

The Temperature and Time that it Took the Alka-Seltzer to Dissolve

Temperature of Water (ºC)	Time (s)
50	21.9
22.3	46.2
1.4	257.0
21.1	47.9

This chart shows the different tests that we conducted in this experiment. The first test was with hot water. The second test was with room temperature water. The third test was with ice water, and the fourth test was with room temperature water, but the amount of water in the beaker was increased. 

This graph shows the temperature at the different points in our data collection. We started with the 50ºC water that is represented by the inclined part of the graph in the beginning. Then the diagonal line that goes down connects that part of the graph to the room temperature part because we chose to append all the data runs together. The flat part of the graph towards the middle is the first room temperature test. Then, there is a straight line going down to connect the room temperature run with the ice water test. The ice water test is shown with the flat part of the graph at the bottom. The final diagonal line connects the third test with the fourth room temperature test that had more water in it than the others. The little dip at the end is the temperature probe being wiped with a paper towel because we forgot to press stop! :)

This graph is a better representation of the data points that we collected during this experiment. It shows that as the temperature of the water decreased, the time it took for the Alka-Seltzer tablet to dissolve increased. 

This is how the lab was set up. The water was in the beaker, and the table was dissolving while the temperature was being monitored with a temperature probe.

This is an image of the Alka-Seltzer tablet dissolving in 500 mL of room temperature water. This was the test where we were allowed to choose our own variables.

This is the tablet dissolving in ice water. It took the tablet the longest time to dissolve in the ice water.

Conclusion: This experiment was a successful, interesting experiment. I learned a lot about speeding up chemical reactions and the effect that heat has on it. My hypothesis was somewhat rejected and somewhat accepted. I was correct that if the temperature gets warmer, the tablet will dissolve faster, but I was incorrect about heat being a catalyst. Heat was just a variable used to speed up the chemical reaction. The reason that heat speeds up a chemical reaction is because for chemical reactions to take place there must be many collisions between different atoms. Collisions between atoms require energy, and heat is a form of energy. Therefore, introducing heat to a chemical reaction will speed up the process because the atoms will have more energy to collide with each other. For the test that we were allowed to determine the variables, I was surprised that the amount of water did not have an effect on the time it took to dissolve. I thought that it would have made the tablet dissolve faster because there were more atoms to make collisions with. Since the amount of water did not have much of an effect, it was proven that heat is the best way to speed up a chemical reaction. I could use the data that I collected to see if heat will affect a different chemical reaction such as lead nitrate and potassium iodide. Despite having trouble collecting the data with Logger Pro, this experiment was interesting because I finally understand how heat affects chemical reactions.

Chemical Reactions Demonstration

Ms. Leland performed 4 different demonstrations to illustrate different forms of chemical reactions.

The first demonstration was an example of combustion. The equation is CH3CH2OH + O2→ CO2 + H2O. When it is balanced, the equation is CH3CH2OH + 3O2→ 2CO2 + 3H2O. The catalyst in this equation was heat. CH3CH2OH is ethanol and O2 is oxygen.
Ms. Leland had been shaking ethanol in a 2-liter bottle to speed up its phase change into gas. She opened the cap and laid the bottle down on its side. Using a lighter, Ms. Leland put the flame to the tip of the bottle where the gas form of ethanol was. The bottle flew across the room with flame coming out of the bottle. A bit of the ethanol had dripped on the table, so there was even a flame on the table.


This the bottle flying across the room with a flame at its tip.


This is the leftover flame on the table.

The reason this reaction took place is because the products (CO2 + H2O) form covalent bonds, so when the catalyst was introduced to the gas form of ethanol, the atoms rearranged themselves. To meet the octet rule, it was easier for CO2 and H2O to share their atoms and become covalent. The flame was a result of the chemical reaction taking place. The reactants included a diatomic molecule (O2), and diatomic molecules tend to be stable, but they are more stable in a compound, so this is why O2 combined with carbon, so that it could be more stable.

The second demonstration was an example of acid base. The equation for this reaction is CH3COOH + NaHCO3→ H2O + NaOCOCH3 + CO2.
I predict that the gas produced will make the flame larger because CO2 and H2O will attract to make covalent bonds. In the previous demonstration when these elements were produced a large flame appeared.
Acetic Acid (vinegar) and Sodium Bicarbonate (baking soda) were the reactants. Together they formed bubbles and in these bubble is the gas, CO2, and when this gas was exposed to a candle, the flame instantaneously went out. This is because CO2 is not reactive with heat. Therefore, it did not react with the fire. 


The flame went out as Ms. Leland poured CO2, a product of the combination of vinegar and baking soda, onto the flame.

The third demonstration was an example of single replacement. The equation for this reaction is HCl + Zn→ H + ZnCl. I predicted that the product would be ZnHCl because HCl (hydrochloric acid) is an ionic bond, so it is already together, and Zn (Zinc) is a Type II Cation. Therefore, it would go first.
I also predict that when a flame is introduced to the zinc and the HCl, the two will form a homogeneous mixture because zinc is not a strong metal, so it will dissolve quickly.
Ms. Leland added pieces of zinc to pure hydrochloric acid. The mixture began to bubble. When the flame was added a fire was on the solution, and it bubble up. The color changed to gray. 


This is after Ms. Leland added fire to the mixture. There is flame also in the beaker on top of the mixture.

The reason that the color changed, and the beaker almost set on fire is because the gas form of pure hydrogen is extremely flammable. When zinc was added the ionic bond between HCl was broken. This freed up Cl, so it could bond with zinc. Therefore, the product of this reaction was H + ZnCl.

The final demonstration was an example of double displacement and synthesis. The equation is H2O2 + KI → H2O + O2 + KI. H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide, and KI is potassium iodide.
I predict that KI will stay the same because it stays the same in the equation. O2 will break off from H2O2 because it is a diatomic element, and diatomic elements are stable on their own.
This experiment was conducted three time before the desired result was produced.
In the first test 10 mL of KI was added to 40 mL of H2O2. The graduated cylinder basically threw up and emptied its contents on the ground. This could have happened because the chemicals were older, and they could have begun to decompose.
In the second experiment, the KI and H2O2 mixture turned brown and bubbled up. There was a lot of gas coming out of the cylinder.
In the third experiment, dish soap was added. Dish soap will trap the gas, but it will still bubble up because hydrogen peroxide is still mixing with potassium iodide. When the soap was added, it did trap the gas, and the mixture kept flowing out of the cylinder. This is also known as elephant toothpaste.


This is the mixture flowing out of the cylinder.

In conclusion, the experiments performed today helped me understand the different types of chemical reactions. They were very interesting and cool! It was fun to see the different products. My favorite was the combustion demonstration because it was fascinating to learn why the bottle flew across the room! :)

100 Greatest Discoveries: Chemistry

Chemistry is a fascinating subject. So much information has been discovered, yet there is still so much more information to learn. Throughout history many groundbreaking discoveries have been made. It started back in ancient Greece. The Greeks thought there were only four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Leonardo Da Vinci challenged that idea and said that air was composed of two different substances. This led to the discovery of oxygen. Joseph Priestley was searching for new air (gases). He conducted experiments with liquid mercury. Antoine Lavoisier also experimented with oxygen. Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen, but Antoine Lavoisier invented it. Next, the atomic theory was invented by John Dalton. He thought that everything was made of smaller pieces called atoms. Amedeo Avogadro quashed the assumption that gases were made of one atom. He suggested that atoms combine into molecules. The synthesis of urea was definitely mind-blowing. By combining inorganic elements, an organic element is created. This organic element is found in life. Perhaps this is the secret of life Victor Frankenstein used when creating his monster. August Kekule was an important chemist that thought that the chemical structure of an element was essential. Everyone thought that the structure of every molecule was a straight chain, but Kekule discovered that Benzene was shaped like a ring. Dimitri Mendeleev is one of the most genius chemists in history. He created the periodic table. This is the image that everyone associates with chemistry. It all started when he was trying to teach his class about different elements. He laid out cards for the different elements on his desk. The cards had the properties of the elements on them. Dimitri grouped the cards in rows and columns based on their similarities. Mendeleev was able to predict properties of elements that had not even been discovered! Next, Humphry Davy set the path for electrochemistry. He performed an experiment with potash. Electrochemistry is used everyday in the modern world. Some examples are the aluminum industry, rechargeable lithium batteries, and solar panels. Next, atoms were discovered to have signatures of light. When elements are added to fire, the color of the flame changes. Sodium changes a flame to orange. Copper changes a flame to green. Strontium changes a flame to red. Joseph Thompson made a revolutionary discovery about atoms. By using what he called a “crookes tube,” a stream of electrons was displayed. Thus, the electron was discovered. Gilbert Lewis then came up with the theory that electrons went around atoms as shells. When electrons were exchanged, new chemicals were formed. For example, sodium and chlorine on their own are toxic, but when combined, they produce everyday table salt. Soon, fullerenes were discovered. They are carbon nanotubes that are one-billionth of a meter in diameter. These are smaller than DNA! In conclusion, chemistry is constantly changing as new things are being discovered or proven.